Wednesday 28 December 2011
Saturday 10 December 2011
Monday 5 December 2011
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Saturday 18 June 2011
Bond of Brothers: Connecting with Other Men Beyond Work, Weather and Sports
'The perfect conversation for men with little to say can be summed up in eight words: 'Can you believe the weather at that game?'' Author Wes Yoder's words are humorous. Yet, beyond the sports and weather chatter and silence that characterize many male conversations, there is brokenness. Emptiness. Shame. That's not funny. For Yoder, addressing the problem is not about planting the flag for one's manhood by joining a mass movement for men, nor is it necessary for men to 'sire a herd or shoot a moose to authenticate their manhood.' Yoder calls disappointed, disenchanted, and lonely men to authenticity. To rediscover joy. To find satisfaction. In Bond of Brothers, men will discover: Why your career and performance at work are not your identity * How to defeat the fears that come to a man in the 'Tough Years' * What to do when you are too worried to forgive or too power-hungry to smile * Why spiritual friendships are the central, life-giving core of all healthy relationships among men. Being present to comfort, to love, to listen, to take a step toward Jesus together in our brokenness ... that is the essence of friendship, Yoder writes. When we invite Jesus into our shared brokenness, he can do the work of remaking what is left of the mess we have made of ourselves. Begin a journey toward authenticity and your true identity here!Price: $16.99
Live and Let Die (James Bond Novels)
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Sunday 5 June 2011
Generating Income From Bonds
I'm biased. I'll admit it. I'm not afraid to tell you that when it comes to investing in bonds I've paid more attention to Barry Bonds than investment grade bonds. Seriously, how could I not pay attention to the disgraced baseball player? I lived in San Francisco for 10 years and I went to Giant's games all the time. I watched him hit home run after home run.
He was the local star. It was exciting to see him out in the city at restaurants and nightclubs . . . or just on the street. I'll be the first to admit, the guy had star power. He just exuded an enviable level of confidence. And he was always surrounded by beautiful people, fans, and the media. He brought a level of excitement with him wherever he went.
It's sad that he disgraced himself and the sport by (allegedly?) using illegal performance enhancing drugs.
But I'm not a sportswriter, and that's another topic for another day. What I wanted to discuss was the idea of bonds in your portfolio (and I don't mean Barry Bonds baseball cards). I wanted to challenge the status quo. So I'm asking the question:
Do you really need to own bonds?
Just a reminder. I'm a bit biased when it comes to bonds. I've always been an equity guy. Even during my banking career, the few bond deals I did had significant equity components. So I've always been partial to investing in equities, and only equities.
So before I answer the key question about bonds, I want to point out something very important.
You can lose money in bonds. You can lose lots of money in bonds, and it can happen very quickly. When investors talk about bonds they normally discuss them as safe stable investments. However, the value of a bond is adjusted against prevailing interest rates.
For example if you own a bond with a 5% interest rate and then rates fall to 4% your bond will increase in value. Because you're bond pays a higher rate of interest, other investors are willing to pay more for your bond.
But the opposite is true as well.
If interest rates go up, the value of any bond you own will go down. Now with bonds, a loss in value is only a loss if you sell. You can always hold the bond and collect your stated interest payments up until the maturity date.
Bonds are traditionally very stable.
They provide fixed rates of return for investors, which is great in retirement. This is an important point for anyone hoping to retire - which should be all of us. The markets gyrate and you can't ever be certain that you'll be investing in a bear or bull market during retirement.
This begs for some stability in cash flows. Normally, I'd focus on individual stocks throwing off dividends. But even dividend paying stocks have risks. A dividend can be reduced or eliminated. For example, Pfizer's (PFE) paid a dividend every quarter for more than 100 years, but many now think the dividend may soon be cut for the first time.
The obvious solution then is to be prepared to generate some income in retirement from bonds.
The closer you get to retirement the more bonds you should own. But, how much is enough? One simple rule of thumb - the percentage of bonds in your portfolio should match your age. So, if you're forty, you should have 40% in bonds. If you're 60 then 60%.
Nobody's been able to answer my question of what to do when you hit 101? But I digress.
There are a number of ways to invest in bonds, but this gets confusing. Bonds have a wide variety of maturity rates, tax consequences, call features, and in some cases, conversion features. I'm sure at some point I'll address these issues. But for now let me give you the lazy way to investing in bonds.
Buy a few Bond ETFs.
You know me. I like to keep it simple with my investments. And iShares is now offering a series of ETFs making it easy to invest in bonds. These ETF's allow you to invest in bonds based on their maturities.
For example, they have funds focused on bonds that will mature in 1-3 years, 3-7 years, 7-10 years, 10-20 years, and 20+ years. It's a good idea to have a mixture of short-term, intermediate-term, and long-term bonds in your portfolio for diversification.
If you want to add bonds to your portfolio right now, take a look at the iShares Lehman 1-3 year Treasury Bond Fund (SHY). It's yielding around 3.53%. Longer-term bond funds may offer a higher yield, but shorter-term bonds like these will hold their value better if interest rates start to rise.
Brian Mikes is the editor of the Dynamic Wealth Report, a free investment newsletter that offers investment ideas and news you can't get from the mainstream investment press. Brian and his team bring decades of Wall Street and Silicon Valley experience to help you discover profitable trading ideas you can use today.
In addition to bond trade ideas, you'll also receive FREE updates on penny stocks, options, ETFs, commodities and currencies that offer the best opportunity for immediate profit.
For more information on a FREE subscription to the Dynamic Wealth Report, please visit: http://www.DynamicWealthReport.com/new.htm
Debunking Surety Bond Myths
I would like to write about some surety bond falsehoods that perk up their ugly heads from time to time.
Surety Bond Myth one:
I need two bonds, one for each state I am operating in. A broker told me that I could get a discount if I buy two bonds from them. This is not true what so ever, the surety would have more exposure and generally the rate can go up. When a broker tells you this they are probably charging a broker fee and are reducing the fee on the second bond. Now if the bond for the other state has a lower liability and the surety company has a lower filed rate it may be true. This is not the case 90% of the time.
A way to get a lower rate for your surety bond is if you buy your bond for multiple years than you would receive a discount for the additional years.
Surety Bond Myth two:
The bank told me that if I get a bond they would loan me the money The answer in 99% of the time is no. If a bank won't lend you the money you probably don't qualify for the loan. If you can't qualify for the loan you probably can't qualify for the surety bond. Now I am not telling you not to try to get a bond for a loan because you maybe one out of a million that may get it. The likely hood of getting it is slim to none. The surety a few years ago did do financial guarantee bonds, but the fall of Enron and a few other companies caused many sureties to go out of business. Since the fall of Enron surety companies have stopped securing loans.
Surety Bond Myth three:
The broker told me that they would not run credit. Unless it's a notary bond or maybe a defective title bond the surety is going to run credit. 99% of the time the surety will perform and review your credit. If you wanted a loan to extend credit from the bank wouldn't they run your credit? The same philosophy goes for the surety because they are extending a form of credit too.
Surety Bond Myth four:
I was told I can use this bond for every state. If you are referring to a state bond this is not true. Each state has their own bond form and surety bond regulations. If it is a for a federal bond like an ICC broker bond which is a federal bond then you could yes this for each state. Keep in mind just because you have a federal bond does not mean that the state does not require you to have a bond too.
Surety bond Myth five:
If I just get the bond the government will give me my license. The government will not let you get your license until you get the bond, but that does not mean that they will give you your license. You still must meet all of the obligee's requirements first. That includes a bond and other requirements such as zoning, background checks and sometimes educational requirements.
Surety Bond types can be confusing you can learn more about Surety Bonds and other Surety Bond programs in future articles.
High Income Bonds and Bond Funds
In today's crazy interest rate world, investors are searching high and low for more interest income. One place to find it is in high-income bond mutual funds called HIGH YIELD bond funds. Let's look at June of 2009. If you required a real high degree of safety, you could get a bit over 2% a year if you tied your money up for 5 years in a bank CD. If you were willing to accept a moderate level of risk, many bond funds were yielding (paying) 5% or 6%. High yield bond funds were also available from large mutual fund companies that offered yields of 10% and more.
How can a bond fund pay interest rate yields of 10% when interest rates are near historical lows? These high yield bond funds invest in lower-quality bonds, sometimes referred to as "junk". Hence, the term often used to describe these mutual funds is JUNK BOND FUNDS. At the one extreme you have high quality "investment grade" bonds and bond funds. These are issued by entities with very high credit ratings, and the risk of default to investors is low.
At the other extreme you have junk bonds, where the issuer has a poor credit rating and default is a real possibility. If a corporation gets into financial difficulty, for example, it might default and quit paying interest to its bond holders. If things go from bad to real bad for the company, investors may fear that they will default and not be able to pay bond owners back as agreed when the bonds mature.
Either way, risk of default is real, and sends the price or value of a junk bond down. The lower the price of a junk bond, the higher the yield. For example, you buy a bond with a 5% coupon interest rate for $1000. A few years later the bond heads toward junk status and its price declines to $500 in the bond market.
An investor who buys this bond for $500 is betting that the issuer will continue to pay $50 per year in interest. That produces a current yield of 10% to the investor who bought the bond for $500 ($50 divided by $500).
The average investor is not capable of analyzing individual bond issues to find a promising high yield opportunity. Professional money managers who manage bond funds are (hopefully). If you decide to opt for high yield bonds go with a high yield bond fund. Here you will be invested in a diversified portfolio of these bonds, which lowers your risk of default considerably. If a couple bonds out of a portfolio of hundreds go bad, no big deal.
Just remember, there is no free lunch in the investment world. High yield bonds and bond funds involve risk. Their price or value fluctuates, sometimes as much as stock prices do. Their advantage is obvious ... high income.
Here are two tips for those of you tempted by these high income investments. First, consider no-load high yield bond funds with low expense ratios. There is no sense in paying a sales charge, or high expenses. This works only to lower your return.
Second, invest in increments rather than in one lump sum. For example, let's say you want to invest $50,000 into a high yield fund. Start with $10,000 in the high yield bond fund and $40,000 in a money market fund with the same fund company. Then have them set you up so that $1000 to $2000 flows each month from the money fund to your bond fund until all of your money is in the junk bond fund.
Using the above strategy, you lower the risk of investing too much at the wrong time. Plus, your money buys more shares when the fund price is lower. This is called DOLLAR COST AVERAGING, and is an effective investor tool.
A retired financial planner, James Leitz has an MBA (finance) and 35 years of investing experience. For 20 years he advised individual investors, working directly with them helping them to reach their financial goals.
Jim is the author of a complete investor guide, Invest Informed, designed for average investors or would-be investors of all levels of financial background and experience. To learn more about investments and investing and his new financial guide go to http://www.investinformed.com
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She Did A Bad, Bad Thing (Harlequin Blaze)
Just once, mild-mannered Jane Kurtz wished she had the nerve to go for what she wants. And she really wants her neighbor, bad boy Perry Brewer. But he's totally out of her league....until she wins the lottery and decides, once and for all, to change her life. So she heads out to Vegas for the ultimate bad-girl makeover! Poor sexy Perry won't know what hit him.... The woman's driving him crazy! Perry's been trying to get Jane's attention for days, with no luck. Now she's all alone in Vegas and, well, somebody's got to look after her. What's a decent guy to do? But after he sees Jane in all her new naughtiness, there's no way he's going to be able to stop at just looking....
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Saturday 4 June 2011
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Doctor No (James Bond Novels)
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Investing in Bonds - Corporate, Treasury Or Municipal?
When you buy a bond, you are actually loaning your money to the organization that issued the bond. That is why bonds are often called "debt instruments." The principal (the "face value" of the bond) is repaid on the maturity date. In the meantime, you are paid a set amount of interest, usually every six months. This interest is called the "coupon" or "coupon rate." It's called that because bonds used to come with little coupons attached that you would cut off and send in twice a year to receive the interest payment. Nowadays, the coupon rate is nothing more than the annual interest rate.
When deciding which types of bonds to invest in, it's important to know all you can about each. Among the types of bonds you can choose from are:
Treasury Bonds
Treasury bonds, also known as "T-bonds" for short, are issued by the United States government and are considered to be the safest of the three bonds. The only risk is if they are sold prior to maturity (but this holds true for all bonds). Super-safety comes at a cost, though, and in the case of treasury bonds that means lower returns than other bonds.
Interest is paid on treasury bonds twice a year, and can be purchased in maturities ranging up to 30 years. All T-bonds bonds are issued in face values of $1,000 with different purchase minimums with each type of security. It is impossible to redeem a treasury bond before maturity, and interest payments stop as soon as the bonds mature.
Corporate
Corporate bonds are issued by companies in order to raise capital. While they can be very safe investments when issued by strong, established companies, the reverse is true for companies that are not rock solid. Unlike treasury bonds, corporate bonds have what is known as a "call provision", which allows the bond holder to get their principle investment back before maturity.
Most corporate bonds have fixed interest rates, and some, called "zero coupons" are sold at a significant discount in exchange for the bondholder agreeing to wait until maturity to receive interest payments.
Because determining which companies are strong and which aren't can be very tricky, there are companies who evaluate the fiscal integrity of various corporations to determine their bond-worthiness. Moody's Investors Services and Standard and Poor are two examples of such rating companies.
Municipal
Municipal bonds are issued by state, county, or city governments for the purpose of financing government sponsored functions (I.E., building a highway or a school), or for other "non governmental" purposes, such as raising money for low income housing or student loans.
Municipal bonds, like T-bonds, pay interest twice a year. These investments can be very safe, but do carry risks as well. Moody's and Standard & Poor rate municipal bonds based on their credit quality, so when investing in them, it's a very good idea to use these ratings as a guideline.
Municipal bonds are subject to significant market risk if sold before maturity.
Maintaining a Diversified Portfolio
Many personal financial advisors recommend that investors maintain a diversified investment portfolio consisting of bonds, stocks and cash in varying percentages, depending upon individual circumstances and objectives. Because bonds typically have a predictable stream of payments and repayment of principal, many people invest in them to preserve and increase their capital or to receive dependable interest income. Whatever the purpose-saving for your children's college education or a new home, increasing retirement income or any of a number of other financial goals-investing in bonds can help you achieve your objectives.
Assessing Risk
All investments offer a balance between risk and potential return. The risk is the chance that you will lose some or all the money you invest. The return is the money you stand to make on the investment.
The balance between risk and return varies by the type of investment, the entity that issues it, the state of the economy and the cycle of the securities markets. As a general rule, to earn the higher returns, you have to take greater risk. Conversely, the least risky investments also have the lowest returns.
The bond market is no exception to this rule. Bonds in general are considered less risky than stocks for several reasons:
o Bonds carry the promise of their issuer to return the face value of the security to the holder at maturity; stocks have no such promise from their issuer.
o Most bonds pay investors a fixed rate of interest income that is also backed by a promise from the issuer. Stocks sometimes pay dividends, but their issuer has no obligation to make these payments to shareholders.
o Historically the bond market has been less vulnerable to price swings or volatility than the stock market.
The average returns from bond investments have also been historically lower, if more stable, than average stock market returns.
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Bonds That Make Us Free: Healing Our Relationships, Coming to Ourselves
Life can be sweet. Our relationships with friends, spouses, colleagues, and family members can be wonderfully rewarding. They can also bring heartache, frustration, anxiety, and anger. We all know the difference between times when we feel open, generous, and at ease with people versus times when we are guarded, defensive, and on edge.
Why do we get trapped in negative emotions when it's clear that life is so much fuller and richer when we are free of them?
Bonds That Make Us Free is a ground-breaking book that suggests the remedy for our troubling emotions by addressing their root causes. You'll learn how, in ways we scarcely suspect, we are responsible for feelings like anger, envy, and insecurity that we have blamed on others. (How many times have you said, "You're making me mad!")
Even though we fear to admit this, it is good news. If we produce these emotions, it falls within our power to stop them. But we have to understand our part in them far better than we do, and that is what this remarkable book teaches.
Because the key is seeing truthfully, the book itself is therapeutic. As you read and identify with the many true stories of people who have seen a transformation in their lives, you will find yourself reflecting with fresh honesty upon your relationships. This will bond you to others in love and respect and lift you out of the negative thoughts and feelings that have held you captive. You will feel your heart changing even as you read.
"It would not be accurate to describe this book as supplying the truths upon which we must build our lives," writes author C. Terry Warner. "Instead it shows how we can put ourselves in that receptive, honest, and discerning condition that will enable us, any of us, to find these truths on our own."
Finding these truths is the key to healing our relationships and coming to ourselves, and Bonds That Make Us Free starts us on that great journey.
Price: $27.95
Nightmare in Bonds and Bond Funds?
When interest rates are low and stocks are falling, bonds in the form of bond funds look attractive to many investors looking for higher income. Quality bond funds can offer dividend yields of 5% or more when bank CD's are paying about 2%, and money market rates are even lower.
Look twice before you leap into a bond fund in a low interest rate environment. Interest rate risk looms, and could be a future nightmare for investors.
There is a huge risk differential between investing in bond funds vs. money market funds or CD's at the bank. The latter are very safe investments. When you invest in bond funds you are investing in bonds. Interest rate risk applies. It could be very risky to chase higher income by buying bond funds in a low interest rate environment.
Interest rates in 1981-1982 went to historical highs, well into the double digits. In 2008 and early 2009 rates hit historical lows. Many investors looking for higher income with safety looked to bond funds for dividend yields of 5% vs. less than 1% offered by safe money market funds. Let's look at the big picture.
The problem with investing in bonds, bond funds, when interest rates are real low is three-fold. First, new bonds being issued offer historically low coupon interest rates. Second, bonds are long-term in nature and their coupon rate of interest paid is fixed for the life of the bond. Third, interest rates in the economy fluctuate.
Keep in mind the following. People invest in bonds and bond funds in order to get higher income. Bonds trade much like stocks do, so their price (or value) fluctuates. When you buy shares in a bond fund, you are invested in a portfolio of bonds.
Now, with interest rates near historical lows picture JKL Bond Fund. This mutual fund holds a portfolio of long-term bonds, on average maturing in 20+ years. The bonds are of high quality, and the fund's dividend yield is 5%. Think early 2009.
Now visualize a nightmare. You buy shares in JKL Bond Fund, and then over the next couple of years interest rates double. New investors can now buy JKL Bond Fund and get a dividend yield of 10%. What does this mean to you?
Bond investors will bid down the price of the bonds in JKL's portfolio as interest rates rise. When interest rates hit 10%, investors can pay $1000 for a new bond that pays $100 a year in interest until it matures many years down the road. Then they get their $1000 back. There is no reason for anyone to accept less than a 10% yield.
The value of an older bond issued at a price of $1000 with a fixed coupon interest rate of 5% paying $50 a year in interest will fall like a rock. Using simple math, in order to get 10% in yearly income from this bond, you might be willing to pay a price of $500...interest of $50 a year divided by $500 equals 10%.
If interest rates double, the share price of a fund like JKL will take a big hit. Bond fund prices or values would not likely fall in half, but would head in that direction. This is the concept of interest rate risk, and it is real. When interest rates go up, bond prices fall.
DURATION is a number that measures interest rate risk for investors. The higher the duration of a bond or bond fund (average duration) the greater the risk. A high duration figure means that a bond or bond fund's price is very sensitive to changes in interest rates.
If you want relative safety in a bond fund, look for one with a low AVERAGE DURATION.
A retired financial planner, James Leitz has an MBA (finance) and 35 years of investing experience. For 20 years he advised individual investors, working directly with them helping them to reach their financial goals.
Jim is the author of a complete investor guide, Invest Informed, designed for average investors or would-be investors of all levels of financial background and experience. To learn more about investments and investing and his new financial guide go to http://www.investinformed.com.
Thursday 2 June 2011
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How Bonds Can Help Our Annuity Sales - Learn These Points and Become Informed
Bond Summary Points. There points are meant to only be a partial piece of the information puzzle. Please refer to the first part of the manual and there is tons of info on the internet. Try and learn all you can and use these points only as basic information.
? Bonds are guaranteed by the issuer of the bond
? Annuities are guaranteed by the insurance company and each individual state. In the modern history of annuities (90 years) not one penny has been lost in an annuity. This includes the Great Depression.
? The daily redeemable value of a bond changes constantly, what if money is needed for illness, other needs or death, the bond will only guarantee the face value at maturity and that could be 30 years.
? Annuities always have the face value available. (options available)
Municipal Bond Failure
? Municipal bonds do fail, current failure rates for the past 10 years has be ?% of bonds issued
Municipal Bond Taxation
? Income on yield of municipal bonds is not federally or state taxed but...the income counts against the taxable limits on social security!
High Yield Bond? High Risk?
? High Yield Bonds are corporate issued bonds. The higher the yield generally means the higher risk. Moody's will disclose ratings and Morningstar will show the bond rating of bonds in mutual funds. Look and be informed. What is the real yield if a bond were to fail in a mutual fund?
Bond Funds to Annuities, an Easy Move.
? Look at the mix of ratings and risk/reward. If the money is important and needs to always be there then bond funds cannot guarantee it. A very easy move when you show the fees that are being charged in the fund as well as the calculated yields after the fees.
Debentures and Notes
? Debentures and notes are the lowest form of corporate safety; they are guaranteed by the good name of the issuer and are always LAST in a liquidation situation. Download the prospectus and show your prospect the risk disclosed.
Callable Bonds Let Them Screw You!
? Bond issuers can change the rules if it fits them! If interest become more favorable for the bond issuer (they go down) the bonds will be called and reissued at a lower rate. If interest rates are higher then the bond issuer will not call them and the bond holder will get lower interest than is available from other new bonds. If the bond holder wants higher rates they will have to sell the bonds at a discount and suffer a loss. (plus commission to sell)
Bond Strategy in an Annuity...YIKES
? The only time this would ever be considered if we have a time record of decreasing interest rates and the best estimate is they will continue to decrease for at least a year. Very difficult decision and I say avoid and use the fixed rate instead. If you find an annuity with a bond strategy today, the account will have lost value. Good sales opportunity.
Bond Ratings sell Annuities.
? Let Morningstar, Standard and Poor's or Moody's make this sale for you.
The Prospectus, a GOLD MINE.
? Use the issuer's prospectus to disclose risk and reward. Any prospectus can be downloaded from the internet, free and easy.
How can Bond Yield be ZERO?
? Easy, buy a bond in the secondary market and pay a premium. Calculate the yield to call and the yield to maturity. Formula is enclosed or more fun can be had by having your client call the broker and have the broker do the calculation.
Premium, Discount and Annuity Sales!
? If a bond is sold at premium it means the prospect paid higher than issue price and so the yield will be lower than the original interest rates. So move the funds to an annuity if safety and security is important.
? If a bond is purchased at a discount then the owner will receive a higher than the issued interest rate. Explain that when interest rates begin to increase the profit they have made will evaporate. Sell the bond, take profit and move to a guaranteed product. Bonds are our Best Source of Annuity Revenue, Why?
? The value of bonds will change every second of every minute of every hour of every day.
? Annuities can only increase.
? If safety and security is important well...you can figure that out.
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How to Build a Retaining Wall
If you need to level or improve your yard, this manual is definitely for you! It was compiled by a certified carpenter builder with over 40 years experience. It will guide you to project completion with ease. Study the included drawings and pictures.
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31 Bond Street: A Novel (P.S.)
Who killed Dr. Harvey Burdell in his opulent Manhattan town house?
At once a gripping mystery and a richly detailed excavation of a lost age, 31 Bond Street is a spellbinding tale of murder, sex, greed, and politics in 1857 New York. Author Ellen Horan interweaves fact and fiction—reimagining the sensational nineteenth-century crime that rocked the city a few short years before the Civil War ripped through the fabric of the nation, while transporting readers back to a time that eerily echoes our own.
Though there are no clues to the brutal slaying of wealthy Dr. Burdell, suspicion quickly falls on Emma Cunningham, the refined, pale-skinned widow who managed his house and servants. An ambitious district attorney seeks a swift conviction, but defense attorney Henry Clinton is a formidable obstacle—a man firmly committed to justice and the law, and to the cause of a frightened, vulnerable woman desperately trying to save herself from the gallows.
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Trends in Fixed Income: Investing in Bonds
This is the eBook version of the printed book.
This Element is an excerpt from The ETF Trend Following Playbook: Profiting from Trends in Bull or Bear Markets with Exchange Traded Funds (ISBN: 9780137029013) by Tom Lydon. Available in print and digital formats.
Understanding today’s bond market—and using it to increase your returns while managing your risk.
Often, investors tend to dismiss the bond market as something for “conservative” investors nearing retirement. But recently, it has been getting far more attention as allocations shift from equities and from alternative investments. Indeed, from a risk/return basis, many parts of the bond market look very appealing compared to almost any asset class.
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Are Investment Bonds a Viable Investment Option?
Your bank or institution will give you bonds in exchange for you lending them cash, they issue bonds that promise to pay you back in the future tense including interest.
Bonds are they risk free?
A bond has low risk attributes but it is not risk free. If you purchase corporate bonds, that essentially means you are purchasing a claim to their assets. Just like a conventional person, big organizations tend to take on debt, which must be paid back; they take on debt in trust to profit from it. It is possible for them to take on too much debt resulting in them not being able to pay it back. Just like a conventional person not being able to make their credit payments. If a company files for bankruptcy they will be unable to payoff the bonds that you bought from them. This means that you as the investor can in theory lose the bonds that you invested in them, fortunately bonds are rarely lost this way.
If you invest in bonds, you can sell them to the market at any time. Just like stock bonds they come with an assigned value determined by the market. When you sell it on the open market, you should keep in mind that people will enquire to know the interest rate of the bonds get-out clause and the rate the market values it at. An example, if you acquired a bond paying five percent interest and you want to sell it when the interest has gone up to 9% you will get an inferior price than what you initially paid. A person could easily get a new bond, instead of your bond.
Looking at the different types of bonds
Municipal Bonds: - Municipal bonds known also as 'minis'. They signify the bonds, which have been issued by municipal corporations. Municipal bonds will also allow the holder to seek taxation exemption.
Corporate Bonds: - Corporate companies float corporate bonds. These bonds generally carry high risk no matter how big or small the corporate company is.
Government Bonds: - If a government wants to build finances they will generally issue government bonds. These are generally risk free in nature and can also provide the owner with taxation exemptions.
Saving Bonds: - The government can also issues savings bonds, the huge plus to having these bonds is that you get taxation exemptions similar to mutual bonds, it's very important to understand the attributes of the specific bond you may want to invest in. factors to consider are Maturity period, purchase cost, fiscal hold backs and decision making factors, these things should all be taken into account when investing in bonds.
To Conclude
Bonds are an excellent but generally overlooked investment option keeping in mind how very little risk bonds have it is amazing how many people have little to no knowledge about them. Bonds require very simply understanding; you purchase them and sell them if you want to. The key to investing in bonds is to set a time frame for how long you intend to keep the bonds. Bonds are ordinarily a long term investment. When investing in corporate bonds, it's important that you read up on their current bond rating. A bond evaluation is a letter grade assigned to each bond to tell investors how high-risk it is. Stay away from "junk" bonds.
Uchenna Ani-Okoye is an internet marketing advisor and co founder of Free Affiliate Programs
For more information and resource links on bonds visit: Savings Bonds
7 Questions to Ask Before Investing in Bonds
Whether you read financial magazines and newspapers, listen to all of the talking heads on the financial channels or talk to your Great Uncle Charlie, you have probably heard the investment advisors singing the praises of investing in bonds. Depending on whom you talk to or what your age is or even your risk tolerance, you will hear a different opinion on this mystifying subject. Before you jump online or call your broker to make your next big purchase you may want to arm yourself with a few basic bullets in your holster.
According to the Bond Market Association there are seven key questions that you will want to ask (and get thorough answers to) before you invest in bonds. With these key questions in mind you may better be able to determine the value of your bond investment and the degree to which it matches your financial objectives.
What is the maturity of the bond? Another way to ask this question is How long will you need to hold the bond before you can get your money back? It is very important that you consider how soon you will need the money whether it will be used for a vacation, a new home or to fund your retirement. Another important factor to consider on this subject concerns liquidity. Is there a ready market for the bond if you need to sell it prior to the maturity date? Or will you need to find another means to fund that unforeseen opportunity?
Does it have early redemption features such as a call date? Many investors have either been unaware of or have overlooked the call features on their bonds and other callable fixed income products. Many investors purchased bonds paying very attractive yields when rates were higher only to have them called away during the recent low interest rate environment. If you are counting on a high yield bond to provide the income that you need to buy your groceries you may be a bit surprised when your bonds are called away and you are looking at reinvesting in new yields that will barely cover a trip through the drive thru window at your local fast food restaurant.
What is the credit quality? What is the rating? Is it insured? Don't get too excited about that 7% yield until you find out whether the bond is investment grade or if it is junk! Credit quality is very important. If you can find a bond that is triple-A rated with insurance guarantying that you will receive all of your interest payments and all of your money back at maturity you might be happy. But, if you just blindly jumped on a bond that was paying 7% because it had a great yield you may be surprised to find out that the company might be on the verge of bankruptcy and you may never see your money again.
Investors should keep in mind that credit ratings may change after you purchase a bond or most other investments. Does Enron ring a bell? Many brokerage firms had buy ratings on Enron's common stock and Standard & Poor's even showed an A- rating on Enron's Common stock as late as October 2001. Unless you have been living under a rock you have probably heard what has happened to investments in Enron.
Credit quality of the insurer is important too! While having an insured bond often lends us great comfort, the insurance on the bond is only as good as the quality of the company that is insuring it.
What is the interest rate? How much am I receiving to lend my money to the issuer? Remember that you are actually loaning your money to someone else and you should be properly compensated. Is the interest rate appropriate for your time horizon? If you are receiving 3% on a two year bond you may be satisfied with the yield but you probably would not be satisfied with the same yield on a thirty year bond.
What is the price? Many investors get so excited when they see a high yield bond that they forget to consider the price! A bond may originally have cost $1000 to purchase but with the changes in interest rates (as well as other factors) over time; the bond may be worth more or less than when originally issued. If a bond pays 7% interest but you pay $1120.00 to purchase it, the yield is not so attractive. This leads us to our next question;
What is the yield to maturity? What is the yield to call? If the bond is priced over par, or over the original issue price, your yield will be less than the stated interest rate. You will receive the payments at the stated interest rates, but because you paid a premium for your bonds, the actual return that you will receive will be less than the seven percent that you may have expected. On the flip side, if you see a high rated bond selling at a discount you may want to consider buying it because the actual return may be higher than the stated interest rate.
What is the tax status? Are you purchasing a taxable bond or a tax free bond? Which type of bond is better? Is it subject to alternative minimum tax (AMT)? What does my tax bracket have to do with it?
Most municipal bonds are federally and even state and local tax free. If you buy a 7% bond that is taxable and you are in the 15% tax bracket your actual return is about 5.95%. The same bond purchased by someone in the 35% tax bracket has an equivalent return of about 4.55%. The investor in the higher tax bracket might want to consider a tax free bond. Tax free bonds are not usually as attractive for investors in the lower tax brackets as they tend to enjoy better overall returns in taxable bonds. A tax free bond paying 5% has an equivalent yield of 5.88% for investors in the 15% tax bracket and 7.69% for investors in the 35% tax bracket. In the previous example the investor in the lower tax bracket might be better off buying the taxable bond at 7%. The above examples do not consider state and local taxes and are for illustrative purposes only.
Some tax-free municipal bonds are subject to Alternative Minimum Tax (AMT). When considering an investment of this type, investors who are subject to AMT will want to pay special attention to tax implications, as this tax will reduce their overall anticipated rate of return. Please consult your tax advisor to learn more about your personal situation prior to investing.
While these key variables should always be reviewed, every investor should consider their own circumstances and consult their tax and or legal advisor prior to investing.
The topics covered in this article are for discussion and information purposes only. Clients should take special care in understanding all of the risks involved prior to investing in Fixed Income products as they are not suitable for all investors. Nothing contained herein should be considered as an offer to buy or sell any security or securities product. Place Trade Financial, Inc. is a registered broker dealer. Member FINRA, SIPC. This article may be linked to other websites. Place Trade is not responsible for the content of these sites. For more information please contact Place Trade Financial at 919-719-7200.
Sarah M. Place, MBA is the President and CEO of Place Trade Financial, Inc., Member FINRA, SIPC, http://www.placetrade.com She has over eighteen years experience in the financial services industry. She has vast experience working with stocks, bonds, mutual funds, 401(k)s and other investment vehicles. She is a member of the National Association for Business Economics (NABE) and the Finance Roundtable, serves as a member of the North Carolina Council on Economic Education (NCCEE) Board of Directors as well as several other boards and committees that are dear to her heart.
She has presented topics including economic issues, investments and retirement planning to numerous groups over the years including the Tufts University Alumni Association and the Cary Jaycees. She is a contributing writer for several publications including Balance Magazine, the Carolina Newswire, the NC Journal for Women, NC Career Networking Magazine and Women in the Triangle.
If you would like to receive a free subscription to our monthly newsletter please visit http://placetrade.com/abt-newsletter.htm
Primal Bonds (Shifters Unbound)
When a female Shifter comes to town seeking refuge, Feline Shifter Sean Morrissey claims the new arrival and finds a beautiful woman who looks him straight in the eye without fear, stirring the mating frenzy within him. To relocate to a new Shiftertown, half-Fae, half-Shifter Andrea Gray must accept a new mate. But Andrea's intense attraction to Sean is something she never expected-a perilous complication for a woman with a troubled past.
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Tuesday 31 May 2011
How To Drive Your Woman Wild - The Masters Method
Don't go another day without experiencing the best sex of your life. You will learn how to set your woman on fire with desire, then give her the longest lasting, most pleasurable sex of her life. Become her ultimate lover now. Bonus book package included.
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Bond Mutual Funds - The Real Secrets
Due to instabilities in the current market, more people are looking to invest in bonds rather than stocks. Bonds are issued by Corporations and Government agencies when they borrow money, and investors can purchase these bonds. There are two types of bond on offer; Individual and Bond Mutual Funds.
Bond mutual funds invest in bonds and other debt securities, and often specialize in a particular bond type, such as corporate bonds, municipal bonds or some other type of government bond. Bonds are seen as a safer bet than stocks and shares (this is why it is often referred to as a conservative investment). Such investments protect the original invested amount whilst paying out a regular income.
If you invest in a bond mutual fund, you will receive dividends each month. These will incorporate any interest payments from the fund securities and also any profit from increases in the market price of the bonds. All types of mutual funds have a net asset value (NAV), and this is commensurate with the dollar value of one share in the fund. Investors pay this price when buying or selling shares in the fund.
Investors profit from bonds in two ways:
The income: Bonds tend to pay higher dividends than other forms of investment such as savings accounts, and dividends are paid out more frequently than individual bonds.
The low-risk element: This is due to diversification, which is the strategy designed to reduce risk by combining many different investments within a portfolio. The diversification of investments ensures that assets do not move up or down in value at the same time or at the same rate, and this makes for a more consistent performance, regardless of economic conditions. Note that investing in bond funds is not entirely risk free - see below.
There are three basic types of bond funds:
US Government Bond Funds invest in bonds issued by the US government and any associated agencies. These are the lowest risk bond fund, as the securities are backed by the full faith of the government. Some US government bonds are exempt from state and local taxes. Risks: related to inflation and fluctuating interest rates
Municipal Bond Funds invest in bonds issued by local and state government. These are popular amongst rich investors because they are exempt from federal taxes, and state taxes also in some instances. These bonds are also backed by the government. Risks: municipalities have declared themselves bankrupt, making this type of bond fund more risky than the US government bond fund.
Corporate Bond Funds invest in bonds issued by corporations. These are not backed by government, and so the element of risk associated with this fund is much higher. However, the other side of this is that the rewards are much greater: incomes paid by corporate bond funds tend to be much greater that those paid by government-backed funds. If you are looking to invest in corporate bond funds, consider the investment-grade option. These only invest in the most secure companies and thus are considered the safest of all corporate bond funds.
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Baby, Drive South (Southern Roads)
The hardheaded Armstrong brothers are determined to rebuild their tornado-ravaged hometown in the Georgia mountains. They've got the means, they've got the manpower…what they need are women! So they place an ad in a northern newspaper and wait for the ladies to answer their call….
Porter, the youngest Armstrong, is all for importing women. Still, he's so blown away by the sheer numbers, he falls off the water tower. Luckily there's a doctor among the newcomers—sweet and sexy Dr. Nikki Salinger.
And Porter has every intention of checking out her bedside manner….
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Chemical Reactions And Energy, Electron Pairs, Covalent Bonds, Acids, Bases, Salts
Modern chemistry attempts to produce new materials which through their various characteristics and properties can be better used for all types of purposes. One prerequisite of choosing the necessary chemical reactions necessary to synthesise some new product is a detailed knowledge of the structure of the reactants and their characteristic properties, including some knowledge of the course of the chemical reactions and the mechanisms which make them go and influence them.
A chemical reaction is a change in molecules and elements which results in new molecules with new properties being formed. The course of a reaction is described by a chemical equation. The materials which react together are called reactants; the materials which are formed in a reaction are called products. A reaction equation, or a chemical equation, is used to abbreviate and symbolise a chemical reaction. The reactants, the materials which begin a chemical reaction, are written on the left side of a chemical equation, in front of an arrow, and the products are written on the right side of this arrow:
Fe(s) + S(s) ® FeS(s)
Iron (in the carbon group) and sulphur (same group) react to produce iron sulphide.
In many reactions, the state of matter of the materials changes. For this reason, whether the material, either reactant or product, is in the solid (s), liquid (l), or gaseous (g) state is indicated with the corresponding lower case letter, in parentheses as above. If a reaction results in the amount of products being less than reactants, we call this a combination, or synthesis reaction. If there are more products than reactants, this is a dissociation, or breakdown reaction.
Energy and Chemical Reactions
Elements try to attain a state which is the most natural or most energetically advantageous for them, that is, one where the outermost electron shells are filled. For this reason, electrons are very often transferred between atoms, either donated or accepted. Some elements donate their electrons more easily, while some elements accept electrons more readily. In extreme cases, the electrons of one atom are completely transferred to an atom of another or the same element. But most of the time, electrons are not completely transferred, but rather shared between two atoms, though those electrons may be attracted to one of the atoms more strongly than the other. This is a chemical bond.
The most ideal state for atoms and molecules is always that state with the lowest energy. In most chemical reactions, then, the energy that was included in higher-energy bonds is released to the surroundings. But in order for such an energy-releasing reaction to occur, the reactants must be infused with enough energy to break the original bonds and allow the formation of new ones. Most of the time, a certain amount of energy has to be added to the system (usually in the form of heat), to start the reaction, or to make it go. This energy is called the activation energy of a reaction.
In order for new compounds to be formed, the bonds of the reactants must first be broken. An activation energy must be introduced into the system. This helps in the formation of new bonds which are more energetically favourable for the atoms and molecules involved in the reaction. If a reaction evolves more energy than was necessary to begin it (activation energy), this reaction proceeds on its own, resulting in the release of some energy to the surroundings.
This is an exothermic reaction. If, however, the energy released in forming new compounds is less than its activation energy, energy must be constantly added as the reaction proceeds. This type of reaction does not proceed on its own. It is an endothermic reaction.
The energy released can be in the form of heat, but it can be light or electricity, too. The variety of energetic phenomena released by chemical reactions is called heat of reaction.
Every chemical reaction goes at its own pace (reaction rate). Influencing this rate is very important in chemistry. The concentration of individual reactants and products can be determined, as can changes in heat and temperature. In gaseous state of matter reactions, reaction rate can be influenced by pressure, with higher pressures resulting in more rapid reactions. Reaction rate increases as the concentration of reactants increases, too. Greater temperature also causes reaction rate to rise. A rise of 10 Kelvin (= 10° C) causes reaction rate to double.
Reaction rate is also markedly influenced by the size of the surface on which reactants are allowed to react. In other words, if reactants are divided into smaller particles, a reaction proceeds more quickly than if reactants are left in bulk. Formation of Ions
In many compounds, atoms form what is called an ionic bond. In this type of bonding, electrons in one atom's outer shell are transferred from that atom to another, which accepts them. This is a complete transfer. The atom which accepts the electron or electrons completely fills its outer shell, thus attaining a noble gas electron configuration. The donor atom, the one which gives up its electrons, also attains a noble gas electron configuration (at a lower energy level) by emptying its most outer shell.
The transfer of negatively charged electrons leads to an excess of positively charged protons in the donor atom, thus forming an ion which is overall charged positively (cation). The second atom, the one which accepts the electron or electrons, becomes a negatively charged ion (anion). An ionic bond is based on the electrostatic attraction of two ions of opposite charges.
Salts make up a great percentage of the compounds which form ionic bonds. They are composed of atoms or molecules with a positive charge (cations) and the second half of an acid, which is a negatively charged anion. The reaction mechanism begins when an atom (or atoms) of hydrogen escape the acid, forming a positive ion. This positively charged hydrogen atom is replaced with another cation (or cations).
For example: HCl (hydrochloric acid) + NaOH (sodium hydroxide) = NaCl (table salt)+ H2O (water)
The valence of a salt is given by the number of hydrogen ions which are able to be transferred in a given reaction.
In the above reaction, just one hydrogen ion is replaced by one sodium ion, forming sodium chloride (table salt, NaCl). For this reason, table salt has one valence. Salts are soluble (able to dissolve) in water, and they have high melting and boiling points. Salts, when they are found in the solid state of matter, are crystalline in form.
Ionic compounds are usually spatially repeating molecules. In other words, they form crystals. Crystals can grow out of, or crystallise from, a saturated solution (from a solution which has exceeded its maximum solubility, where there is more salt than can be dissolved). Or, crystals can be grown from the transformation of an amorphic material (from a material without a regular crystalline structure).
What is the difference between a crystal and an amorphous material? Amorphous materials are not repeating, fixed, regular structures. On the other hand, crystalline structures have completely determined inner arrangements - their crystal lattice.
Every crystal has specific angles which together form the sides of that crystal. These repeat in a formation, with proportions which are highly specific.
Other types of bonds can be integrated into a crystal lattice, as its constituent parts. Crystals can be of various shapes and sizes. These varying crystalline structures, with their different forms and sizes, are what differentiates atoms, molecules and ions. It all depends on the exact geometric arrangement of a crystal, with its defined borders and in some cases sharp angles. The ideal crystal lattice is a thing of beauty, in which all of the points of the lattice are perfectly arranged in their natural places. In reality, however, such perfect crystals are quite rare. Most of the time, crystals which occur in nature are imperfect. Some points on the crystal lattice contain components which do not belong. Sometimes, the lattice is quite flawed.
The growth of a crystal or crystals is dependent on external factors, such as temperature, the natural speed of crystal growth, solution concentration, the amount of crystallising material and the presence, if any, of foreign material in the solution.
Crystals can be described with the help of two terms:
Proportion of Crystal and Type of Crystal
Agglomerates which appear from various materials can combine to form a complex, varied, imperfect crystalline structure.
Crystals can also be differentiated according to their crystal lattice. According to this criterion, there are simple crystals, in which individual points of the crystal lattice are occupied by parts of the same kind. The growth of a crystal can be imagined as a kind of regular swelling, on all sides, at its walls and edges. Besides those, there are complex crystals which are composed of multiple simple crystals.
Crystals can be investigated by structural analysis procedures. There are 7 basic types of crystal lattices and 7 other derivatives of these. All together, around 1000 crystalline structures are presently known.
Polymorphic crystals can appear in various forms. Materials which are formed from crystals can actually change their crystal lattice depending on temperature. Graphite (a component of pencil leads) and diamond are both modifications of the crystalline structure of the carbon atom ( C ). The differing characteristics come from differing attractions and forces between the various atoms.
An allotrope (allos from the Greek - different, trope - change) is a compound which is able to take on various forms.
Monotropes are those crystals that can be arranged in various ways, but only one of these is stable. The other forms, when they are present, tend to transform into this most stable form. Since temperature differences are not relevant to this situation, these transformations may not be considered as temperature based. While allotropic materials can be found in a variety of forms, monotropes, on the other hand, will sooner or later transform to one, most stable form.
Enantiotropes are those crystals which have the ability to change their crystal lattices as a function of temperature. As temperature rises or falls, these crystals change their crystalline arrangements. One lattice exists above a certain temperature, with another in place below that critical temperature. Most of the time, these critical temperatures are very high. Of interest are a number of forms of iron which are assumed during production.
Isomorphs are those substances which share the same crystalline structure, although they are completely different compounds.
One of the simplest crystalline structures is the one which characterises table salt (NaCl). Its structure is that of a cube which has at its corners ions of chlorine. Sodium ions are at the centres of the sides and in the centre of the cube.
Electron Pairs, Covalent Bonds
Bonds between atoms or in some cases molecules can be different. Paired, covalent bonds are found in non-metallic molecules. The atoms in the molecules of basic gases such as oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen are all joined together with covalent bonds. These types of bonds have atoms connected with the help of the electrons in the outermost shell. The result is the union of two electrons to form an electron pair. Negatively charged, bonded electrons are attracted to the positively charged nuclei of both atoms. Because both of the nuclei must now share the electrons, they stick together, joined by the union of their electrons, an electron pair.
Each of the two atoms, then, seemingly has one or more electron extra. The bond between the atoms is based on the attraction of the two nuclei of the atoms to the shared electron pair. The shared electrons belong to both atoms at the same time. All atoms, in whatever state they are found, have the tendency to want to fill their outer electron shells. In the hydrogen molecule (H2), each hydrogen atom has two electrons associated with it, in its one and only outermost shell. (An isolated hydrogen atom has only one electron.) When, however, two hydrogens are bonded together, they achieve the electron configuration of the second element, helium (He).
Covalent bonds are very stable, because the atoms involved in a covalently bonded compound fill their outermost shells completely, bringing the atoms to their most energetically desirable state. This type of electron arrangement is equivalent to that of a noble gas, because all of the noble gases have a stable electron configuration (filled outermost electron shell). Also, molecules of chlorine, oxygen and nitrogen can reach the stable electron configuration in their outermost shell - by bonding with another atom of their own kind. That is, two chlorines bonded together, two oxygens, two nitrogens.
In order to reach the noble gas electron configuration, it is often necessary to fill various spaces in the outermost electron shell. In this case, multiple electron pairs are needed to fill these "holes". In the oxygen molecule, two electron pairs are needed, with the nitrogen molecule three. This is necessary because all atoms taking part in these types of bonding reactions need either 2 electrons in their outermost shell (elements in the first energy level, or period, of the periodic table: H and He) or 8 (other groups of the periodic table which are at the right end). These atoms which have incomplete outermost electron shells must attract other electrons, from other atoms, to fill their shells completely. An atom like oxygen can join with two atoms, forming an electron pair with each of them, or it may join with one other atom to form two electron pairs with the one atom, called a double bond. There are also triple bonds. Carbon (C) is capable of forming single, double and triple bonds.
In a covalent bond, a shared electron pair in a molecule is attracted to both nuclei on both sides equally strongly, but only if the two atoms sharing that pair are the same. Attractive force depends on the charge of the atomic nucleus and on the amount of electrons in the atom's electron cloud. The ability to attract electrons by an element was called electronegativity (EN) by L. Pauling (American chemist).
The quantity electronegativity is defined as the comparative ability of an atom to be attracted to an individual atomic nucleus. In other words, the flourine atom attracts bonded electrons most strongly of all atoms. It was therefore assigned the highest electronegativity of all elements - 4.0. Electronegativity values of all the elements can be found in the periodic table. In every period, every horizontal row of the periodic table, electronegativity rises from left to right across the period, with rising number of protons, or atomic number. On the other hand, in the main groups, as we move down the periodic table from top to bottom, or vertically, electronegativity decreases. So, the element with the largest value of electronegativity must logically be found in the top right of the period table. Besides the noble gases, which have their outermost electron shells filled, and do not need electrons, the element which attracts electrons most readily is flourine (F), with a value of 4.0. At the other end of the periodic table, bottom left, are elements with the lowest electronegativity (Fr 0.7).
In compounds composed of two different atoms, an electron pair is not shared equally among the two. Instead, it is attracted to the two sides with different attractive force, based on the atoms' differing electronegativities. In the molecule hydrogen chloride (HCl), the hydrogen atom and the chlorine atom share one electron pair. But because of the greater size of the chlorine nucleus, this electron pair is more strongly attracted by the chlorine nucleus than by the hydrogen nucleus. In addition, the chlorine atom has another 6 electrons in its outermost shell. These are arranged into three electron pairs - all unbonded. For this reason, the chlorine atom has an overall negative charge to it, if only a partially negative charge. The hydrogen atom, on the other side, has the same value of partial positive charge. The molecule HCl, or hydrogen chloride, with its partial positive side (hydrogen) and its partial negative side (chlorine) is said to have a dipole, or dipole moment. This means that the one pair of shared electrons is not shared equally. In this case, the pair is closer to the chlorine atom. It is partially negatively charged because it now has more electrons than it has protons in its nucleus. Hydrogen, on the other side, has less electrons than it has protons, and is therefore positive. Bonded electrons are written as a dash, a short line between two element symbols, or between molecular chemical formulas. This type of designation is called a valence formula.
The electronegativity of an element is determined by the amount of protons it has in its nucleus, as well as the number of electrons it contains in its outermost shell. Thanks to the partial transfer of a bonded electron pair to the more electronegative atom in a molecule, that molecule can have a positive and negative side. These sides are called poles, and if they differ in a significant way, the molecule is said to have a dipole. The result is a molecule with one side positive, one side negative. This can, of course, affect neighbouring molecules, attracting or repelling them if they are partially charged. The water molecule has a partial negative charge, found on the oxygen atom. The two hydrogen atoms have a partial positive charge.
Both free electron pairs in the oxygen atom attract the centre of a partially positively charged neighbouring molecule with their electromagnetic attractive force. This type of bonding is called hydrogen bonding. Each molecule of water hydrogen bonds with other water molecules, aligning so as to produce a positive, negative repeating pattern. The positive side is hydrogen, the negative oxygen. This phenomenon, hydrogen bonding in water, explains water's high surface tension. This means that the molecules on the surface are weakly bonded to the rest of the liquid, by these hydrogen bonds. For that reason, water, even at relatively high temperatures, is still a liquid, whereas other similar molecules have already changed to the gaseous state.
Bonds between atoms can be depicted in various ways:
H : H formula with points, or dots, indicating electrons
H - H or with hydrogen chloride H Cl valence formula
H2 HCl chemical formula of the molecule
Acids, Bases, Salts
Intermolecular Forces
Most inorganic compounds are categorised as either acids, bases or salts. S. Arrhenius (Swedish physical chemist) came up with one of the most often used definitions for an acid.
According to that definition, acids are materials which when dissolved in water release hydrogen cations (atoms of hydrogen with a positive charge). Bases, on the other hand, are materials which release hydroxide anions (negatively charged compounds of one atom oxygen, one atom hydrogen) into solution when dissolved.
Salts are made of atoms or molecules, with one side positively charged, the other negatively charged.
They are formed from an acid when that acid gives up its hydrogen atoms with their positive charges, only to replace the hydrogen with the ion from a metal.
A number of acids and bases were known long before their chemical makeups and reaction mechanisms were known. As pure substances they are not distinguishable from each other. So, acids have to be dissolved in water in order for chemists to determine their characteristic properties. Acids begin to react when placed in water. In an aqueous solution the ions of an acid separate from each other, into a hydrogen cation and the corresponding anion. Both of these ions, free in the water, interact with it. In essence, water molecules surround the ions, creating what is called hydrated ions. So, a hydrogen ion does not remain isolated, but undergoes a hydration reaction to produce a positively charged "water" molecule, in the reaction H2 O + H+ = H3O+. These ions cause a solution to be acidic in character, and cause the colour of an indicator to change, indicating an excess of H3O+
ions in solution. (An indicator is a substance which can differentiate whether an acid or base is present in a solution.) In addition, ions in solution cause a solution to conduct electricity, or be conductive.
When a base is dissolved in water, positive ions are released into solution, and so are negatively charged hydroxide ions. A solution which contains hydroxide ions is a basic solution, or an alkaline solution. Just like with acids, the ions released into solution are hydrated, or surrounded by water. These solutions also conduct an electric current. Basic solutions also affect the colour of an indicator, and can produce basic salts when reacted with acids. Bases are basically lattices of ions. Their solids can also conduct an electric current.
According to the Brönsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases, any compound which releases a proton, or a hydrogen atom, into solution is an acid. Any compound which accepts a proton is considered a base. Solutions which contain dissolved bases and acids, because they release protons or hydroxide ions, conduct electricity.
The chemical process in which an electrical current runs through a solution is called an electrolysis. Bonds are broken in the process due to the electrolysis, with new substances being formed on the ends of the conductors, or electrodes.
Electrolysis reactions require the kinds of solutions which contain dissociated ions, allowing the solution to carry an electrical current.
During the electrolysis of an ionic solution, negatively charged ions (anions) migrate to the positively charged electrode (anode), while positively charged cations migrate to the negatively charged electrode, the cathode. In the case of an acidic or basic solution, positive ions migrate to the cathode (the end of the electrode with a negative pole), whereas the negative hydroxide ions swim to the anode (electrode with a positive pole). In these types of solutions (called electrolytic), there is no movement of electrons as in a crystal lattice, but rather movement of free swimming ions to the corresponding electrode. The number of ions is the determining factor as to whether, and how well, a solution conducts electricity.
The volume of hydrogen ions in a solution is measured as the value of the pH of a solution. The value of pH is the negative base ten logarithm giving the concentration of protons (hydrogen (H), measured from 0 to 14. A pH of O means that the concentration of hydrogen = 1, while a value of 14 means a concentration of 0.00000000000001. Solutions with a pH from 0-7 are acidic.
The acidic character of a solution decreases with rising pH. At a pH of 7, a solution is neutral. As pH rises from 7, so does the alkalinity of a solution. At a pH of 7, there are the same amount of hydrogen ions as hydroxide ions.
Indicators are used in order to determine the acidic or basic character of a reaction. These substances have to have the property of changing their colour in the presence of an acidic or basic solution. For example, litmus paper changes its colour to blue in a basic solution. In a neutral solution, it is pink. In a basic solution, it is red. Colour changes differ from one indicator to another, but are characteristic for one specific indicator. With the right choice of an indicator, pH can be fairly accurately determined.
The degree with which an acid releases hydrogen ions into solution depends on the concentration of an acid. The stronger an acid, the more protons it releases into solution, and the more negative ions as well. Two well-known strong acids are sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid (HCl). Weak acids, on the other hand, do not release as many ions into solution. In other words, they do not dissociate as completely. Examples of weak acids include citric acid and acetic acid.
If we mix an acidic solution with an equally strong basic solution in the same proportions, the resulting solution will be neutral. This is called a neutralisation reaction. In a neutralisation reaction, hydrogen ions are neutralised by hydroxide ions - forming water - and a salt. Heat is also released during neutralisation reactions.
Many chemical reactions that seem not to be working or go at an extremely slow pace can be accelerated by addition of a small amount of some material. The material, called a catalyst, is added to the reactants. A reaction which requires a catalyst is said to be catalysed.
Catalysts take part in a reaction, but they are not used up by the reaction and are unchanged by the reaction. In the type of reaction which requires a catalyst, the reactants would react either too slowly or not at all. In other words, a catalyst gives the system a boost, an increase in activisation energy. The presence of a catalyst in a chemical reaction makes the reaction easier, or in some cases, possible at all: A catalyst takes part in a reaction by reacting with one of the original reactants to form a an intermediate product, which goes on to produce the required end product. One possibility is that one of the reactants, with the help of interaction with a catalyst, acquires new spatial dimensions or other characteristics which make it more reactive with another of the reactants. We differentiate between homogeneous catalysts, which are the same state of matter as the other reactants, and heterogeneous catalysts, where the catalyst is in a different state of matter.
This text was drawn from the Chemical Reactions and Energy, Electron Pairs, Covalent Bonds, Acids, Bases, Salts page, where you will find explanatory outlinks.
Translation Resources
Translated by KENAX Translation Service.
Secure Your Future By Investing In Bonds
For any financial plan, bonds are the core element to invest and grow wealth. It can be defined as a debt security. When you purchase a bond, you are lending money to an issuer such as government, municipality, corporation, federal agency or other entity. In return for that, the issuer promises to pay you a specified rate of interest during the life of the bond and to repay the face value of the bond when it "matures," or comes due. It is best to invest in bonds because one will get a predictable stream of payments and repayment of principal, with interest.
There are different types of bonds for you to choose. It includes municipal bonds, corporate bonds, mortgage-backed bonds, surety bonds etc.Surety bond is an agreement among three parties the principal, oblige and surety. In construction companies surety bonds are frequently used. A key term in nearly every surety bond is the penal sum, and it is specified amount of money which is the maximum amount that the surety will be required to pay in the event of the principal's default.
This allows the surety to assess the risk involved in giving the bond; and the premium charged is determined accordingly. If the principal defaults and the surety turn out to be insolvent, the purpose of the bond is rendered futile. The principal will pay a premium in exchange for the bonding company's financial strength in order to extend surety credit. In the event of a claim, the surety will investigate it and if it turns out to be a valid claim, the surety will pay it and then turn to the principal for reimbursement of the amount paid on the claim and any legal fees incurred. There are mainly two categories of bond types: contract bonds and commercial bonds. Contract bonds guarantee a specific contract and it includes performance, bid, supply, maintenance and subdivision bonds. Commercial bonds guarantee per the terms of the bond form and examples are license & permit, union bonds, etc.
A surety bond issued by an insurance company to guarantee satisfactory completion of a project by a contractor is performance bond. Many performance bonds give the surety three choices they are; completing the contract itself through a completion contractor ; selecting a new contractor to contract directly with the owner; or allowing the owner to complete the work with the surety paying the costs.
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Compliance Of Performance Bond
Performance bond, the most required surety bonds among the customers or applicants. Performance bonds are issued in almost every surety bonding company or by the insurance company. Performance bonds are also forms part of the different kinds of surety bonds issued by the state bonding company. Performance bond fetches more demand among the customers, because it ensures the guaranteed obligations to the obligee and the subcontractor. Performance bonds are issued as per the statutes of the state and federal government. Performance bonds compiles with all statutes, rules, regulations of the state and federal government.
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Performance bond not only guarantees the obligee, but also the subcontractor who supplies labor and material for the contractor. Generally, performance bonds are largely used in construction business or real business or for any contracts. Performance bonds are more important and essential surety bonds among the customer and the applicant can obtain the required surety bond from the required bonding company for the required surety amount. Generally, surety bonds are sold by the insurance company or by the bonding company. Performance bonds are issued to the people who are engaged in business activity or in any contracts.
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